Past to Present–The 60 Years of Iran

The Achaemenid Empire (550-330 BCE), founded by Cyrus the Great, was one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Egypt to India. It was known for its efficient administration, road systems, and policy of tolerating different cultures and religions. However, its expansion led to conflict with the Greek city-states during the Greco-Persian Wars, where key battles such as Marathon and Thermopylae ultimately halted Persian expansion into Europe. The empire later fell to Alexander the Great in 330 BCE. After a period of Greek Control, the Parthian Empire (247-224 CE) rose to power. It was less centralized but militarily strong, especially with its cavalry, and frequently fought the Romans for control of the region. It was eventually replaced by the more centralized and powerful Sasanian Empire (224-651 CE), which preserved Persian culture and made Zoroastrianism the state religion. The Sasanians were major rivals of the Roman (later Byzantine) Empire but were weakened by constant warfare and internal instability. The weakening led to the empire's collapse during the Muslim conquest of Persia in 651 BCE, when Arab Muslim forces defeated the Sasanians. This marked the end of ancient Persian imperial rule and the beginning of a new Islamic rule in Iran.

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Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was the last Shah of Iran. While he ruled, Iran underwent rapid modernization through reforms such as the White Revolution, which expanded education, granted women voting rights, and boosted economic growth through oil wealth. Cities developed quickly, and living standards improved for many. However, the country remained politically restrictive, with opposition limited and monitored by the secret police (SAVAK). Economic benefits were uneven, and many rural communities struggled after land reforms, leading to migration to overcrowded cities. At the same time, religious leaders such as Ruhollah Khomeini and other groups opposed the Shah's western-style changes, creating growing social and cultural tensions.

In the 1970s, Iran experienced rapid economic growth driven by high oil revenues, which funded modernization programs in education, healthcare, infrastructure, and women's rights. Cities expanded quickly, and many urban Iranians benefited from new opportunities, while rural areas often remained marginalized. Despite these gains, political repression intensifies wiwhich fundedth the secret police (SAVAK), monitoring and suppressing opposition. Cultural and religious tensions grew as many Iranians opposed the Shah's westernization policies. By the late 1970s, widespread dissatisfaction, economic inequality, and organized opposition led by Ruhollah Khomeini culminated in mass protests, strikes, and demonstrations. In early 1979, the Shah fled the country, and the monarchy was replaced by an Islamic Republic, marking the end of the Pahlavi era and a dramatic shift in Iran's political, social, and cultural life.

In the 1980s, Iran was dominated by the New Islamic Republic of Iran, established after the 1979 revolution, led by Ruhollah Khomeini. The decade was marked by the political consolidation of the Islamic Republic, with laws and policies reflecting strict religious principles. Iran also faced major challenges, including the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), which caused widespread destruction, economic hardship, and loss of life. The government focused on mobilizing society around revolutionary and religious ideas, while political dissent was harshly suppressed. Despite these difficulties, Iran maintained its independence and began reshaping its institutions, culture, and foreign relations according to the principles of the Islamic Republic.

In the 1990s, Iran was in a period of relative recovery and stabilization following the devastation of the 1980s and the Iran-Iraq War. Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, who served as president from 1989 to 1997, promoted economic reconstruction, modernization, and some liberalization in trade and industry, focusing on rebuilding infrastructure and improving living standards. Society experienced a gradual social and cultural opening, with increased access to education, media, and urbanization. However, political freedom remained limited, with strict oversight from religious authorities and continued suppression of opposition. By the late 1990s, there was a growing demand for reform, especially among youth and urban populations, which set the stage for the election of reformist Mohammad Khatami in 1997.

Still ongoing….

In the early 2020s, Iran faced a combination of economic hardship, public health crisis, and political tension. The country struggled with the impact of renewed U.S. sanctions after the U.S. withdrew from the 2015 nuclear deal, high inflation, unemployment, and the COVID-19 pandemic, which strained its healthcare system and economy. Large protests over economic conditions and political repression continued, building on earlier movements such as the “Woman, Life, Freedom” protests of 2022-2023.

 By 2024-2025, domestic policies remained tightly controlled by Iran’s religious-guided system, with conservative hard-liners maintaining dominance over elected bodies and institutions, though a surprise reformist-aligned presidential win in 2024 suggested some desire for change. In early 2026, a dramatic escalation occurred: a military conflict involving the United States and Israel unfolded after a series of strikes targeting Iran’s nuclear sites and leadership. U.S. and Israeli operations killed Iran’s long-time supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, in February 2026, a historic break in the Islamic Republic's leadership and the first such removal since the 1979 revolution. Iran’s political establishment quickly appointed Mojtaba Khamenei as the supreme leader to maintain continuity. The conflict caused major damage, casualties, and economic strain in Iran, along with stricter crackdowns on dissent. Some analysts see the regime as unstable, while others believe it remains resilient.

Glossary:

 Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani – President of Iran (1989–1997), who focused on rebuilding the country after the Iran–Iraq War and improving the economy through modernization and reconstruction.

Alexander the Great’s conquest of Persia – The campaign led by Alexander the Great in the 330s BCE that defeated the Achaemenid Empire and spread Greek culture across Persia.

Battle of Marathon – A battle in 490 BCE where the Greeks defeated the Persian army, slowing Persian expansion into Greece.

Cyrus the Great – Founder of the Achaemenid Empire, known for creating one of the first large empires and for relatively tolerant rule toward conquered peoples.

Iran–Iraq War – A long and destructive war between Iran and Iraq that caused massive casualties and economic damage.

Islamic conquest of Persia – The defeat of the Sassanian Empire by Arab Muslim forces, leading to the spread of Islam in Persia.

Imperial rule – A system where a single ruler (like a king or emperor) holds centralized power over a large territory, often with limited political participation from citizens.

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action – An agreement between Iran and world powers to limit Iran’s nuclear program in exchange for reduced economic sanctions.

Mohammad Khatami – Reformist president (1997–2005) who promoted more political openness, civil society, and dialogue with other countries.

Ruhollah Khomeini – Leader of the 1979 Islamic Revolution, who established Iran as an Islamic Republic based on religious leadership.

Battle of Thermopylae – A famous 480 BCE battle where a small Greek force resisted a much larger Persian army, becoming a symbol of resistance.

Ali Khamenei – Iran’s Supreme Leader since 1989, holding ultimate political and religious authority in the country.

 Mojtaba Khamenei – Son of Ali Khamenei, considered an influential figure within Iran’s political and religious system.

 Parthian Empire – An Iranian empire (247 BCE–224 CE) known for resisting Roman expansion and using cavalry warfare.

 Reformist – A political approach that seeks gradual change within a system, rather than complete revolution, often aiming for more freedoms or modernization.

 Sassanian Empire – The last Persian empire before Islam (224–651 CE), known for strong central government and promotion of Persian culture.

SAVAK – The Shah’s secret police force, known for monitoring and suppressing political opposition.

 Shah – The title used for the king of Iran, especially for rulers like Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

White Revolution – A series of reforms in the 1960s aimed at modernizing Iran, including land redistribution and expanded rights for women.

Woman, Life, Freedom protests – A wave of protests sparked by the death of Mahsa Amini, demanding women’s rights and political change in Iran.

Zoroastrianism – One of the world’s oldest religions, founded in ancient Persia, focusing on the struggle between good and evil.

Achaemenid Empire – The first Persian Empire (c. 550–330 BCE), founded by Cyrus the Great, known for its size and administrative system.